Bahasa-bahasa Jerman
Bahasa Jermanik | |
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Bahasa Teutonik | |
Taburan geografi: | Pada asal di Eropah utara, barat, dan tengah; kini di seluruh dunia |
Klasifikasi bahasa: | Indo-Eropah
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Pembahagian: |
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ISO 639-2 / 5: | gem |
Sebahagian daripada siri |
Topik-topik Indo-Eropah |
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Bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropah
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Asal-usul
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Arkeologi
Dataran rumput Pontia
Kaukasus
Asia Timur
Eropah Timur
Eropah Utara
Dataran rumput Pontia
Dataran rumput Utara/Timur
Eropah
Asia Selatan
Dataran rumput
Eropah
Kaukasus
India
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Kaum dan masyarakat
Kaum Indo-Aryan
Kaum Iran
Asia Timur
Eropah
Asia Timur
Eropah
Indo-Arya
Iran
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Kepercayaan dan mitologi
Indo-Arya Iran
Lain-lain
Eropah
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Kajian-kajian Indo-Eropah
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Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.
Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada 16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. Etnologi SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.
Ciri- ciri Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;
1. Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (present tense) dan kata kerja lampau (past tense) (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau ( preterite ) ) 2. Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah the Germanic weak verbs; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat theGermanic strong verbs 3. The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative) 4. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift) 5. A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis 6. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them) Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type. Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.
Penulisan
Antara bukti-bukti terawal bahasa Jermanik adalah nama-nama yang direkod oleh Tacitus pada abad pertama( khususnya dari hasil karya beliau iaitu Germania), tetapi satu-satunya contoh tulisan bahasa Jermanik terawal tercatat pada abad kedua BC dalam Negau helmet[1]. Kira-kira pada abad kedua AD, pentutur variasi bahasa Jermanik tertentu telah memperkembangkan Elder Futhark, sejenis susunan abjad yang dikenal sebagai abjad runic atau runic alphabet
Inskripsi runic awal yang sebahagian besarnya terbatas kepada nama peribadi adalah agak sukar untuk diintrepretasi. Bahasa Gothic atau The Gothic language yang ditulis menggunakan abjad Gothic diperkembangkan oleh Bishop Ulfilas untuk penterjemahan Kitab Injil Bible pada Abad ke empat. Selepas itu paderi-paderi yang beragama Kristian/Christian yang ada pengaruh variasi bahasa Jermanik dan juga boleh bertutur, mambaca dan menulis bahasa Latin mula menulis dalam bahasa Jermanik dengan menggunakan abjad Latin yang diubahsuai. Walaubagaimanapun, sepanjang zaman Viking Viking Age, abjad runic masih digunakan dengan meluas di negara-negara Skandinavia.
Selain daripada huruf-huruf Latin yang biasa, bahasa-bahasa Jermanik menggunakan abjad-abjad tambahan dan juga tanda-tanda tambahan untuk improvasi sebutan atau dialek tertentu seperti umlaut, huruf ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, Ȝ, dan Þ dan Ƿ, daripada abjad runic. Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).
Diakronik
Nota umum: Jadual dibawah menunjukkan kemajuan sejarah paling penting untuk setiap bahasa secara berperingkat (menegak), dan pengelasan secara hampir (approximate groupings) dalam subkeluarga (medatar). Susunan mendatar dalam setiap kelas tidak mengimplikasikan keserupaan bahasa yang lebih besar atau yang lebih kecil.
Iron Age 500 BC–AD 200 | Proto-Germanic | |||||||||||||||
East Germanic | West Germanic | North Germanic | ||||||||||||||
South Germanic | Anglo-Frisian | |||||||||||||||
Migration period AD 200–700 | Gothic, | Lombardic1 | Old Frankish | Old Saxon | Old Frisian | Old English | Proto-Norse | |||||||||
Vandalic, Burgundian, | Old High German | |||||||||||||||
Early Middle Ages 700–1100 | Old Low Franconian | Runic Old West Norse | Runic Old East Norse | |||||||||||||
Middle Ages 1100–1350 | Middle High German | Middle Dutch | Middle Low German | Middle English | Old Icelandic | Old Norwegian | Early Old Danish | Early Old Swedish | Early Old Gutnish | |||||||
Late Middle Ages2 1350–1500 | Early New High German | Middle English | Early Scots | Late Old Icelandic | Old Faroese | Old Norn | Middle Norwegian | Late Old Danish | Late Old Swedish | Late Old Gutnish | ||||||
Early Modern Age 1500–1700 | Crimean Gothic | Low Franconian varieties, including Dutch | Middle Frisian | Early Modern English | Middle Scots | Icelandic | Faroese | Norn | Norwegian | Danish | Swedish | Gutnish | ||||
Modern Age 1700 to present | all extinct | High German varieties | Low Saxon varieties | Frisian varieties | English varieties | Scots varieties | extinct3 | extinct3 |
Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.
Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.
Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.
Contemporary
Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.
- Proto-Germanic
- West Germanic languages
- High German languages
- standard German
- Central German
- East Central German
- Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch
- Obersächsisch
- Schlesisch
- Thüringisch
- Nordobersächsisch
- Hochpreußisch
- West Central German
- Osthessisch
- Nordhessisch
- Mittelhessisch
- Rheinfränkisch
- Moselfränkisch
- Ripuarisch
- Luxembourgish
- Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
- East Central German
- Upper German
- Alemannic German
- Swabian German, including Stuttgart
- Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
- Alsatian
- Mittelalemannisch
- High Alemannic German, including Zürich German and Bernese German
- Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
- Austro-Bavarian German
- Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
- Alemannic German
- Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
- Low Franconian
- Standard Dutch
- Old Dutch
- Middle Dutch
- Modern Dutch
- Brabantic
- Zealandic
- West Flemish
- East Flemish
- Hollandic
- Limburgish
- Zuid-Gelders
- Modern Dutch
- Middle Dutch
- Old Dutch
- Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
- Standard Dutch
- Low German
- West Low German
- Northern Low Saxon
- East Frisian Low Saxon
- Westphalian language
- Eastphalian language
- Northern Low Saxon
- East Low German
- Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
- Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
- Mittelpommersch
- Ostpommersch
- Niederpreußisch
- Brandenburgisch
- West Low German
- Anglo-Frisian
- Old Frisian
- Frisian
- Stadsfries language
- West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
- Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
- Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
- Noardhoeks
- South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
- Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
- Schiermonnikoogs
- Hindeloopers
- Aasters
- Westers
- East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
- Saterland Frisian language
- Several extinct Frisian variants
- North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
- Mainland Frisian
- Mooring
- Goesharde Frisian
- Wiedingharde Frisian
- Halligen Frisian
- Karrharde Frisian
- Island Frisian
- Söl'ring
- Fering
- Öömrang
- Heligolandic
- Mainland Frisian
- Frisian
- Anglic
- English language
- Old English
- Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
- Early Modern English
- Modern English
- British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English dialects, and others, Welsh English, Scottish English) and Irish English
- North American English (American English and Canadian English)
- Australian English and New Zealand English
- South African English
- South Asian English (Indian English)
- South-East Asian English (Singapore English, Malaysian English)
- West Indian English (Caribbean English)
- Modern English
- Early Modern English
- Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
- Old English
- Scots language
- Early Scots[2] (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
- Middle Scots
- Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
- Northern Scots
- North Northern
- Mid Northern
- North East Scots
- Doric aka South Northern
- North East Scots
- Central Scots
- North East
- South East Central
- West Central
- South West Central Scots
- South Scots "Border Tongue"
- Insular Scots
- Ulster Scots aka "Ullans" (Ulster/Lallans)
- Northern Scots
- Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
- Middle Scots
- Early Scots[2] (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
- Yola
- English language
- Old Frisian
- High German languages
- North Germanic
- Proto-Norse
- Old Norse
- West Scandinavian
- Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
- Bokmål (official written standard)
- Høgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
- Landsmål (unofficial written standard)
- Nynorsk (official written standard)
- Riksmål (unofficial written standard)
- Vestlandsk
- Sørlandsk
- South-West Norwegian
- Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
- North-West Norwegian
- Nord-Norsk
- Helgeland Norwegian
- Nordland Norwegian
- Troms Norwegian
- Finnmark Norwegian
- East Norwegian
- Vikvær Norwegian
- Middle East Norwegian
- Oppland Norwegian
- Østerdal Norwegian
- Midland Norwegian
- Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
- Valdres and Hallingdal
- Western Telemark Norwegian
- Eastern Telemark Norwegian
- Trøndelag Norwegian
- Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
- Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
- Namdal Norwegian
- South-eastern Trøndersk
- Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Härdalic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Icelandic
- Old Icelandic
- Modern Icelandic
- Old Icelandic
- Gøtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
- Faroese
- Norn (extinct)
- Shetland Norn (extinct)
- Orkney Norn (extinct)
- Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
- East Scandinavian
- Danish
- Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
- Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
- Bornholmsk
- Scanian
- Island Danish
- Jutlandic/Jutish
- North Jutlandic
- East Jutlandic
- West Jutlandic
- Sønderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
- Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
- Swedish
- Dalecarlian
- Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamål dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
- Old Swedish
- New Swedish
- Modern Swedish
- Svealand Swedish
- Norrlandic
- Götish
- East Swedish/Finland Swedish
- South Swedish
- Götalandic
- Modern Swedish
- New Swedish
- Dalecarlian
- Danish
- Old Gutnish
- Modern Gutnish
- West Scandinavian
- Old Norse
- Proto-Norse
- West Germanic languages
Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
- Insular Scandinavian
- Icelandic
- Faroese
- Continental Scandinavian
- Danish
- Norwegian
- Swedish
Perbandingan kosa kata
Bahasa Inggeris | Bahasa Scots | Bahasa Frisia Barat | Bahasa Afrikaans | Bahasa Belanda | Bahasa Saxon Rendah | Bahasa Jerman | Bahasa Goth | Bahasa Iceland | Bahasa Faroe | Bahasa Sweden | Bahasa Denmark | Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) | Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk) |
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Apple | Aiple | Apel | Appel | Appel | Appel | Apfel | Aplus | Epli | Epl(i) [3] | Äpple | Æble | Eple | Eple |
Board | Buird | Board | Bord | Bord | Boord | Brett / Bord [4] | Baúrd | Borð | Borð | Bord | Bord | Bord | Bord |
Beech | Beech | Boeke/ Boekebeam | Beuk | Beuk | Böke | Buche | Bōka [5]/ -bagms | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bøg | Bøk | Bøk, Bok |
Book | Beuk | Boek | Boek | Boek | Book | Buch | Bōka | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bog | Bok | Bok |
Breast | Breest | Boarst | Bors | Borst | Bost | Brust | Brusts | Brjóst | Bróst | Bröst | Bryst | Bryst | Bryst |
Brown | Broun | Brún | Bruin | Bruin | Bruun | Braun | Bruns | Brúnn | Brúnur | Brun | Brun | Brun | Brun |
Day | Day | Dei | Dag | Dag | Dag | Tag | Dags | Dagur | Dagur | Dag | Dag | Dag | Dag |
Dead | Deid | Dea | Dood | Dood | Dood | Tot | Dauþs | Dauður | Deyður | Död | Død | Død | Daud |
Die (Starve) | Dee | Stjerre | Sterf | Sterven | Döen/ Starven | Sterben | Diwan | Deyja | Doyggja | Dö | Dø | Dø | Døy |
Enough | Eneuch | Genôch | Genoeg | Genoeg | Noog | Genug | Ganōhs | Nóg | Nóg/ Nógmikið | Nog | Nok | Nok | Nok |
Finger | Finger | Finger | Vinger | Vinger | Finger | Finger | Figgrs | Fingur | Fingur | Finger | Finger | Finger | Finger |
Give | Gie | Jaan | Gee | Geven | Geven | Geben | Giban | Gefa | Geva | Giva / Ge | Give | Gi | Gje(va) |
Glass | Gless | Glês | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glas | Gler | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glass | Glas | |
Gold | Gowd | Goud | Goud | Goud | Gold | Gold | Gulþ | Gull | Gull | Guld/ Gull | Guld | Gull | Gull |
Hand | Haund | Hân | Hand | Hand | Hand | Hand | Handus | Hönd | Hond | Hand | Hånd | Hånd | Hand |
Head | Heid | Holle | Hoof [6]/ Kop[7] | Hoofd/ Kop[7] | Kopp[7] | Haupt/ Kopf[7] | Háubiþ | Höfuð | Høvd/ Høvur | Huvud | Hoved | Hode | Hovud |
High | Heich | Heech | Hoog | Hoog | Hoog | Hoch | Háuh | Hár | Høg/ur | Hög | Høj | Høy/høg | Høg |
Home | Hame | Hiem | Heim [8]/ Tuis[9] | Heim [8]/Thuis[9] | Heim | Heim | Háimōþ | Heim | Heim | Hem | Hjem | Hjem/heim | Heim |
Hook | Heuk | Hoek | Haak | Haak | Haak | Haken | Krappa/ Krampa | Krókur | Krókur/ Ongul | Hake/ Krok | Hage/ Krog | Hake/ Krok | Hake/ Krok[10] |
House | Hoose | Hûs | Huis | Huis | Huus | Haus | Hūs | Hús | Hús | Hus | Hus | Hus | Hus |
Many | Mony | Mannich/Mennich | Menige | Menig | Mennig | Manch | Manags | Margir | Mangir/ Nógvir | Många | Mange | Mange | Mange |
Moon | Muin | Moanne | Maan | Maan | Maan | Mond | Mēna | Tungl/ Máni | Máni/ Tungl | Måne | Måne | Måne | Måne |
Night | Nicht | Nacht | Nag | Nacht | Natt/ Nacht | Nacht | Nótt | Nótt | Natt | Natt | Nat | Natt | Natt |
No | Nae | Nee | Nee | Nee(n) | Nee | Nein (Nö, Nee) | Nē | Nei | Nei | Nej | Nej | Nei | Nei |
Old | Auld | Âld | Oud | Oud, Gammel [11] | Oll | Alt | Sineigs | Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) | Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) | Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) | Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) | Gammel (but: eldre, eldst) | Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst) |
One | Ane | Ien | Een | Een | Een | Eins | Áins | Einn | Ein | En | En | En | Ein |
Ounce | Unce | Ûns | Ons | Ons | Ons | Unze | Unkja | Únsa | Únsa | Uns | Unse | Unse | Unse |
Snow | Snaw | Snie | Sneeu | Sneeuw | Snee | Schnee | Snáiws | Snjór | Kavi/ Snjógvur | Snö | Sne | Snø | Snø |
Stone | Stane | Stien | Steen | Steen | Steen | Stein | Stáins | Steinn | Steinur | Sten | Sten | Stein | Stein |
That | That | Dat | Dit, Daardie | Dat, Die | Dat (Dit) | Das | Þata | Það | Tað | Det | Det | Det | Det |
Two/Twain | Twa | Twa | Twee | Twee | Twee | Zwei (Zwo) | Twái | Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö | Tveir (/Tvá) | Två | To | To | To [12] |
Who | Wha | Wa | Wie | Wie | Wokeen | Wer | Ƕas (Hwas) | Hver | Hvør | Vem | Hvem | Hvem | Kven |
Worm | Wirm | Wjirm | Wurm | Wurm/ Worm | Worm | Wurm | Maþa | Maðkur, Ormur | Maðkur/ Ormur | Mask/ Orm [13] | Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm [13] |
Bahasa Inggeris | Bahasa Scots | Bahasa Frisia Barat | Bahasa Afrikaans | Bahasa Belanda | Bahasa Saxon Rendah | Bahasa Jerman | Bahasa Goth | Bahasa Iceland | Bahasa Faroe | Bahasa Sweden | Bahasa Denmark | Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) | Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk) |
Lihat juga
- Keluarga bahasa dan bahasa
- Jermanisasi dan Anglikisasi
Catatan
- ^ Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King Diarkibkan 2006-06-16 di Wayback Machine of The University of Edinburgh Diarkibkan 2006-08-18 di Wayback Machine and by The University of Glasgow Diarkibkan 2005-12-18 di Wayback Machine. It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
- ^ The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
- ^ Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany
- ^ Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
- ^ Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).
- ^ a b c d From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
- ^ a b Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
- ^ a b From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
- ^ Ongel is also used for fishing hook.
- ^ Old and decayed.
- ^ Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
- ^ a b The cognate means 'snake'.
Pautan luar
- Germanic Lexicon Project
- Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen: Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch
- Ethnologue Report for Germanic